DESCRIPTIVE WRITING

Descriptive Writing
In this type of essay you normally describe people, scenes, or events. Remember that a good description relies upon careful observation and that to get a good mark you need to show an eye for detail, a wide vocabulary, and the ability to use figurative language as a means to engage the reader's imagination. Tasks do tend to be fairly bland (especially at GCSE) so the art comes in making 'a silk purse out of a sow's ear'.
Problems
· Wandering off of the topic
· Telling a story
· Listing features
· Describing things without any knowledgeable foundation
Guidelines
· Don't get side-tracked into writing a vague and rambling piece founded on only one part of the topic
· Follow your plan carefully
· Develop each part of your plan as fully as possible
· Think of a nuber of adjectives that could be usefully employed to expand on a topic, but don't become a 'thesaurus child' - language has to be used with care and accuracy to be truly effective, and a random list of synonymous adjectives is not a good use of language.
· Involve all the senses, not just sight - remember to describe sounds (via onomatopoeia), smells, tastes, textures.
· Make use of contrasts - people in a good mood and a bad mood, a location at different times of the year
· Use figurative language - metaphor, simile, onomatopoeia, personification. Imagery in particular can be used as a means to engage the individual response of the reader - they like that!
· Using the present tense can make your description more immediate - but it can be difficult to sustain. Whatever tense you use you must be consistent
· Using a third person omniscient narrator can make you more detached and dispassionate - a good idea with this sort of a task
· Remember that punctuation can be used for effect - a full stop or a comma in the right place can have a lot of impact.
Descriptions of People
To describe a person well you will need to use observational skills, dealing with the following aspects:
· Physical features - facial features, colouring, hight and body shape
· Age
· Clothing
· Posture
· Speech
· Mannerisms
· Their job
· How they relate to other people
Each of these headings might be used as the basis for a paragraph, but remember that you are not simply producing a 'wanted poster'.
Possible tasks:
· Your hero
· The oldest person you know
· Someone you can't stand
· Your favourite relative
· Your most memorable teacher
· Someone you feel sorry for
· Your next door neighbour
· Your best friend

Descriptions of Scenes
The most important thing here is to try to visualise the scene in your mind as you write, but don't just think about its visual impact, remember the other senses as well. It might be a good idea to start with what you see as the most significant aspect of the place.
Possible tasks:
· The supermarket
· School assembly
· Thunderstorm in the city
· A location in winter and summer
· A country lane in autumn
· Your garden

Description of Events
Beware of telling a story
Possible tasks:
· The circus
· The concert
· A helicopter flight over your local area
· Walking to school
· The worst/best lesson ever
· A ceremony you have taken part in
OverviewDescriptive writing is the act of -- or art of -- writing to describe. Writers often seek to describe places, people, objects, sounds, tastes, smells -- or anything, really--which they feel can be captured in words. The writer’s goal is to render description so precisely that the reader sees (or hears or smells or tastes or touches) the object of the description in exactly the way that the writer intends. In order to achieve this, the writer must focus on precise use of details in crafting his or her description; anyone can write a basic description of a place, or person, or sound -- but the memorable descriptive passage is the one which is crafted of specific details which the writer has captured in precise and well-wrought phrases and sentences. Dominant ImpressionThe key element in writing a memorable description is the point of view of the writer (or speaker) of the passage. The dominant impression can be thought of as the way the writer feels about the object of the description; for instance, a writer may regard a place as hospitable and inviting, or as cold and forbidding. Likewise, a writer may regard a person as warm and friendly, or aloof and reserved. In conveying the chosen dominant impression, the writer must both select details carefully, and present them with the impression in mind. All good descriptions are crafted with steady attention to the dominant impression. back to top of page"Show, Don’t Tell"There’s a simple reason that this is perhaps the most commonly used phrase where descriptive writing is concerned (and that you may well have heard it plenty of times already): this is truly the fundamental principle of descriptive writing. When it comes to describing something, “telling” the reader about it comes off as flat, vague, and not particularly memorable; “showing” the reader the object -- describing it in such a way as to paint it in words, and bring it to life in the reader’s eye -- renders the object far more vivid, visible, and active. But what, exactly, are "telling" and "showing?" Telling is another way of saying “summarizing.”Here’s a writer “telling” readers about a room:"It was a nice room, a warm room. It was a happy place to be."The reader reads this and says to her or himself, "okay. But why? What did the room look like? Why was it a happy place to be? Was it warm, or hot? Or does the writer mean warm in terms of temperature? I can’t really see or feel this room; I wish I’d been given more details." These two sentences may represent exactly how the writer feels about the room, but to the reader they aren’t vivid enough to register this room as any different from any other room. More importantly, the reader is unable to experience the qualities of this room that the writer intends; because the reader has only been “told” about the room (and told in very vague terms), the room itself remains fuzzy and unclear (essentially invisible), and the qualities of niceness, warmth, and happiness are merely the writer’s impressions of the room, nothing the reader can connect to. Far more vivid and communicative is to show the reader the room (with emphasis on the aspects of the room which provoke in the writer the feelings she or he receives). Here’s a brief passage which attempts to “show” that the room is “warm”:Sunlight pours through the window, pooling on the down comforter which lies across the bed. A block of light also angles across the wall opposite the bed, highlighting the pale orange color of the room. A thick red carpet sprawls over the floor, a corner of it lit too by a sunbeam; the room’s windows admit the sun along two walls, and tiny dust motes hover in the bright streaks which glaze the room.

Here the writer never says "warm," but attempts to present a series of details which demonstrate this quality of the room. Perhaps just the first sentence of this description conveys this quality; however, the writer has decided to continue describing the room in order to render a clear picture (and feeling) of the room for the reader. Each reader will respond differently to this description; however, it’s fairly clear in its presentation of this room as a warm and comfortable place, and the writer is well on the way to describing it in such a way as to make this room unique.ObservationIt isn’t possible to create a unique description of an object without first taking time to observe it. But to observe something means more than just to look at it -- the writer seeks not only the general details which comprise the basic profile of this object (the apple is red, roundish, and large for an apple), but the specific details which make the object unique (the apple has two leaves still attached to the stem, it doesn’t stand straight when resting on a tabletop, on its left side a streak of yellow shines underneath the red, a small bruise hangs just below the apple’s crown on its back side). As a writer, one must ask why this object is not any object; what details about it make it unlike any other -- and specifically, unlike any other of its kind (in the case of the apple, the writer seeks the details which make this apple not just another red apple; the writer seeks to write such a precise description that the reader could pick this apple out of a bowl of six other apples).back to top of pageUsing All Five SensesUp to here, most of the emphasis has been placed on visual details; there’s little doubt that in describing most things, visual properties form the dominant portions of our descriptions. This is because for most of us, our sight is the sense which is the primary -- and dominant -- sense through which we perceive our world. What something looks like is extraordinarily important in our ability to perceive it, particularly when we are trying to perceive something solely through a written description. However, the best descriptive writing evokes objects through the use of more than just sight. The more a writer can capture an object through senses such as sound, smell, touch, and even taste, the more vivid and unique the writer’s description becomes. If, in describing the apple above, the writer includes the aroma of the apple (if it had one), or a sense of what the apple’s skin might feel like, or even if the writer imagines the possible taste of an apple like this, the description of the apple becomes even more specific and memorable. In observing an object one aims to describe, the goal is always to try to see past the obvious -- and this most certainly includes observing not only the visual qualities of something, but attempting to perceive it through all five senses. Strong VerbsGood descriptive writing also employs the use of strong, specific verbs. Central in choosing verbs is -- as always -- the avoidance of the verb “to be”. To say a thing “is,” or “was,” is not nearly as active -- and therefore specific -- as choosing a sharper verb. Consider these two versions of the same sentence:The sunlight was on the propane tank.The sunlight stretched over the propane tank.

Clearly the second sentence is more interesting; here the sunlight becomes active. In the first sentence, there’s nothing interesting about the sun’s presence -- it’s simply there. Here are a few more examples of active verbs in action (taken from writing teacher Natalie Goldberg):The fiddles boiled the air with their music.The lilacs sliced the sky into purple.Her husband’s snores sawed her sleep in half.I exploded when I saw her.My blood buzzed like a hornet’s nest.

A good rule of thumb is that the more unexpected the verb (as in “boiled” in describing how fiddles sound, or”sliced” in describing flowers), the more specific and memorable a sentence will be.However, it’s also important to remember that active verbs can’t be used in every sentence; and sometimes, more general verbs like “run, see, go, said,” etc., are exactly what you need in a given sentence. The goal, as a writer, is to make your choice a conscious one -- choose the verb you want, not the verb that comes to you most easily. Push yourself to use specific, active verbs whenever possible, and to choose your verbs (and all your words) carefully and deliberately all the time. Place DescriptionOnce a writer has become skilled at precise observation, and good at capturing the details which make for unique description, the next goal is to be able to describe pointedly. This means, simply, to be able to offer the reader the portrait of the object -- in this case a place -- which evokes the dominant impression the writer wishes the description to evoke. If a writer wants the reader to “see” a sunset over the Golden Gate Bridge as beautiful and inspiring, he or she will attempt to present the description of this scene in just this way; similarly, a writer may intend this same sunset to register as a sad moment, and will then present the details of this scene in such a way as to evoke those emotions. Writers, when they describe, are usually aiming to do more than merely render a clear portrait of a place; usually the intent is to render a portrait which also evokes a feeling (as above, the description of the room was intended to capture its warmth). Descriptions of PeopleAs with descriptions of place, descriptions of people aim not only to portray the basic essential features of a person, but also to offer some presentation of the character’s personality. Again, this is done through the details the writer chooses to focus on, rather than through telling. The writer never says "he was quite uptight," or "she was lazy," but attempts to array her or his details to convey this impression of the person being described. About this page:These materials were created and collected by Andy Spear at Head Royce School.

What is a Narrative ?To begin, this is probably the type of writing with which you are most familiar, both as a reader and a writer. Basically a narrative is a story, and most of us were raised on stories, from children’s books to the novels and short stories we read today, both for class and for pleasure. Most of us have also been writing or dictating narratives of one form or another since we began to connect words into sentences. Think back to first grade when you drew the pictures on the top half of the page and wrote the accompanying story down below in the large blue lines that helped you keep your letters consistently sized. You were writing narratives.A narrative has a beginning, a middle, and an end. It is governed by plot, it moves through events, usually in a rough chronological order, and one thing seems to follow another in some logical sequence.A story isn't really worth writing about unless there is some larger truth that can be gained from the events themselves. There must be movement or growth from the beginning to the end; things are not the same at the end of the tale as they were at the beginning. It should also be evident that the writer has given thought to the relationship between the events of the narrative. This reflection on and careful reconstruction of events is what makes for a good narrative..

Appropriate Topic Selection: Pick an event that you can transform into an engaging story. The scope of this event should not be too broad or too narrow. An example of a topic too broad for a 1-2 page essay would be your entire experience at summer camp one year, while one too narrow might be a short conversation with another person. Keep the length of your assignment in mind when you select a topic.In addition to picking a topic of appropriate scope, also be sure that you are writing a narrative essay, not a description. For example, the subject of a descriptive essay could be, “When I was a kid, I always used to ride my bike around the neighborhood”; a narrative essay topic, in contrast, might be, “Once when I was five, I rode my bike” and something significant happened on that one particular bike ride. The topic should be a specific, one-time event with a distinct beginning, middle, and end. Appropriate Point of View: If you are writing fiction, you can choose in whose shoes you will stand to tell the story. With the nonfiction narrative essay, however, you must use the first person, "I," since you are a key player in the action and your viewpoint is the lens through which your reader will see the experience. Element of Conflict: A good story includes some kind of conflict, some complication that the protagonist (main character) runs up against. This doesn't necessarily have to be an external struggle between two people; it could also be an internal conflict (e.g. the struggle going on inside of the protagonist between what he/she wants as an individual and what he/she knows is best for the larger community). In the sample essay by George Orwell, the external conflict is between the narrator and the elephant, but the more significant conflict is internal: the struggle between the narrator's need to save face and his desire to get out of there, to avoid killing the elephant.Climax: The climax of a story is defined as the place at which the conflict comes to a point of crisis, a high point in the tension, an important turning point. After this high point, the narrative has some kind of resolution. However, resolution does not mean everything has to wrap up happily and neatly. Nonetheless, there does need to be a sense of having arrived at a new level of understanding or awareness.Selection of Significant Details:When you write about your event, you will not include every little thing that happened. A narrative is not an exact transcription. It is up to you to determine which of the many parts of the experience are important. But how do you make that choice? What are you trying to illustrate with your story? Which of the details are essential to getting that idea across? Keep those. Which parts are unrelated to, even distracting from the main idea? Omit those. Rythm: Selecting the significant details is essential, but it is also important to think about how you move through the event in the retelling. You may spend one sentence quickly summarizing a week in which not much happened, and then invest four paragraphs on a five-minute interaction or event, if that is the top moment of the experience. It is also important to think about the order in which you present the events, saving the key, climactic episode for last. This is called "climactic sequencing."Use of description: A good story also makes use of description. When a character or setting is introduced, by all means, use some of your freshly-learned vocabulary in a description. “I was strolling leisurely on the path when ....” is richer than “I was walking on the road”. But do so only if the idea about that person or place you are conveying is in some way related to the point of your story. Be careful not to let the descriptive mode take over the narrative.Use of Appropriate Dialogue: Although not required, most stories include the actual words of people involved in the event--fragments of conversations that actually happened. Dialogue can enhance the reader's sense of "being there" in the moment with the narrator. Be careful, however, not to put in dialogue for the sake of having dialogue. Just as you select significant details, so too should you select only significant parts of dialogue. Dull dialogue is an instant turn off. What if you can't remember the exact words? Don't worry, so long as you are true to the voice of the speaker and content of what was said.



1. Write a narrative writing about any memorable experience or encounter you have had with a medical, religious or educational person or institution.2. Write a narrative wiring about an experience in which pressure from others caused you to act against your better judgment. 3. Write a narrative writing about an encounter with prejudice directed against you as a student, teenager, female, male, or member of an ethnic or religious minority, etc and tell how you coped with it.4. Write a narrative writing about an experience or encounter you have had while traveling.5. Write a narrative writing about a memorable “first” experience you have had ”first day at a new school, first time riding a bike, first real failure or rejection, first crush, etc. “
A comparison and contrast essay is one of the most common and popular forms of writing. At its heart, this style of essay depends upon the act of mind at the root of all thinking: the comparison. We isolate two items and mentally set them alongside of each other in order to note what properties they have in common and what properties each possesses that the other lacks. The compare/contrast essay presents in a straightforward and organized way the results of such a mental exercise. In organizing the results of the comparison, such an essay presents an original thesis that seeks to explain the similarities and/or differences rather than merely note them. An effective thesis will reduce the many points of likeness or difference to one or two basic patterns or meanings, bringing order to what might seem chaotic or random.There are two basic ways to organize a compare/contrast essay: parallel construction and integrated construction:Parallel Structure and Integrated StructureThere are two ways to organize your compare/contrast essay. Each takes careful preplanning and organization. Here is the difference between the two.Parallel ConstructionIn order to write a paper with parallel construction, a student must write about each character in separate paragraphs using the same categories of comparison. For example, if a student compares two characters in The Joy Luck Club, she would compare the family backgrounds, personalities, and relationship choices for EACH character in the same order in each paragraph. The similarlities and differences will evolve naturally through the discussion.Integrated ConstructionIn the integrated contruction, the writer must weave back and forth within a single paragraph, disclosing the similarities and differences at the same time. According to Writers in Training, a writer would use the model: "A is like this, while B is like this; A does this, but B does that." An integrated paragraph works well to distinguish the differences between two items that may appear similar.

Taken and adapted from Head-Royce Humanities website

An argumentative essay is a thesis-based essay on a topic that can be debated. In other words, the essay defends a thesis which can be argued for and against. The purpose of this type of essay is twofold: to persuade the reader to take one side of an issue, while giving serious attention to the other side. Argumentative essays can address topics ranging from the very personal, to the historical, social/political, to the literary, but whatever the topic, there must be at least two sides that can be intelligently defended.Steps to writing an argumentative essay:o Sample topics o Brainstorming § pro/con list § evaluating the evidence § defining your terms o Creating a thesis o Creating an outline o Concession paragraphs o Introductory paragraphs o Conclusions o Essay Models § Personal topic (9th grade) "Grades in Education" § Literary topic (11th grade) "Is Odysseus a Good Leader?"

Taken and adapted from Head-Royce Humanities website


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The five features of effective writing · Part 3
Organization
By Kathleen Cali
In this series
The five Features of Effective Writing — focus, organization, support and elaboration, style, and conventions — are a valuable tool for understanding good writing and organizing your writing instruction. By teaching these features, you can help your students become more effective writers in any genre, at any level, and make your writing instruction easier to manage at the same time. This series of articles, written with the support of the North Carolina Department of Public Instruction, will show you how.
1. Teaching the features of effective writing
2. Focus
3. Organization
4. Support and elaboration
5. Style
6. Conventions
7. Further reading
Learn more
Learn more about English language arts, features of effective writing, organization, and writing.
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When I was a writing resource teacher, I was a fountain of formulas, ready to spout forth the appropriate formula for each type of writing: “First, Next, Last” for narratives, ASO2 (Audience, Situation, Opinion, Two Reasons) for persuasive writing, and of course, the all-purpose five-paragraph essay. For many students, writing instruction rarely extends beyond these simplistic recipes. But teaching organization is much more complicated than teaching students the formula for a five-paragraph essay. Although formulaic writing can help scaffold students’ early efforts at writing a particular genre, the scaffolding must eventually be removed to allow students to grow as writers.
If focus is the foundation for constructing a piece of writing, organization is the the structural framework for that writing. Organization is important to effective writing because it provides readers with a framework to help them fulfill their expectations for the text. A well-organized piece of writing supports readers by making it easy for them to follow, while a poorly organized piece leads readers through a maze of confusion and confounded or unmet expectations.
Organization, simply put, is the logical progression and completeness of ideas in a text. Instruction in organization focuses on two areas: text structures specific to the particular genre and the cohesive elements that tie clauses, sentences, and paragraphs together into a cohesive whole.
Text structures
A text structure is the framework of a text’s beginning, middle, and end. Different narrative and expository genres have different purposes and different audiences, and so they require different text structures. Beginnings and endings help link the text into a coherent whole.
Beginnings: hooking your reader
Where to begin is a crucial decision for a writer. Just as a good beginning can draw a reader into a piece of writing, a mediocre beginning can discourage a reader from reading further. The beginning, also called the lead or the hook, orients the reader to the purpose of the writing by introducing characters or setting (for narrative) or the topic, thesis, or argument (for expository writing). A good beginning also sets up expectations for the purpose, style, and mood of the piece. Good writers know how to hook their readers in the opening sentences and paragraphs by using techniques such as dialogue, flashback, description, inner thoughts, and jumping right into the action.
What’s in the middle?
The organization of the middle of a piece of writing depends on the genre. Researchers have identified five basic organizational structures: sequence, description, cause and effect, compare and contrast, and problem and solution.
Sequence uses time, numerical, or spatial order as the organizing structure. Some narrative genres that use a chronological sequence structure are personal narrative genres (memoir, autobiographical incident, autobiography), imaginative story genres (fairytales, folktales, fantasy, science fiction), and realistic fiction genres. Narrative story structures include an initiating event, complicating actions that build to a high point, and a resolution. Many narratives also include the protagonist’s goals and obstacles that must be overcome to achieve those goals.
As early as kindergarten, children can be introduced to basic informational genres that are organized sequentially, including learning structures for writing instructions, experimental recounts and experimental procedures. Older students can learn to use timelines to organize biographies, oral histories, and recounts of current and historical events.
Description is used to describe the characteristic features and events of a specific subject (”My Cat”) or a general category (”Cats”). Descriptive reports may be arranged according to categories of related attributes, moving from general categories of features to specific attributes.
Children’s initial attempts at descriptive reports often are “All About” reports that have little internal organization. Informational alphabet books and riddle books can be used to introduce kindergarten children to the writing of descriptive reports through shared or interactive writing. Older children can learn to develop categories of related attributes to organize their reports by using webs, concept maps, and software such as Inspiration and Kidspiration. Expectation outlines (Spiegel, 1981) are another strategy that can help students anticipate the categories of information found in a report.
Cause and Effect structure is used to show causal relationships between events. Cause and effect structures organize more sophisticated narratives as childen become more adept at showing the relationship between events. Young children also can begin to extend opinion essays by giving reasons to support their opinions using the word because. Signal words for cause and effect structures also include if…then, as a result, and therefore.
Comparison and Contrast structure is used to explain how two or more objects, events, or positions in an argument are similar or different. Graphic organizers such as venn diagrams, compare/contrast organizers, and data matrices can be used to compare features across different categories. Primary grade children can begin to use words such as same and different to compare things. Other words used to signal comparison and contrast organizational structures include alike, in contrast, similarities, differences, and on the other hand.
Problem and Solution requires writers to state a problem and come up with a solution. Although problem/solution structures are typically found in informational writing, realistic fiction also often uses a problem/solution structure that children can learn to identify.
Endings: beyond “happily ever after”
Anyone who has watched a great movie for ninety minutes only to have it limp to the finish with weak ending knows that strong endings are just as critical to effective writing as strong beginnings. And anyone who has watched the director’s cut of a movie with all the alternate endings knows that even great directors have trouble coming up with satisfying endings for their movies. Just like directors, writers have to decide how to wrap up the action in their stories, resolving the conflict and tying up loose ends in a way that will leave their audience satisfied. Student writers struggle with writing strong endings, often relying on the weak “I had a lot of fun” summation or the classic “It was just a dream” ending to rescue them from their stories.
The type of ending an author chooses depends on his or her purpose. When the purpose is to entertain, endings may be happy or tragic, or a surprise ending may provide a twist. Endings can be circular, looping back to the beginning so readers end where they began, or they can leave the reader hanging, wishing for more. Endings can be deliberately ambiguous or ironic, designed to make the reader think, or they can explicitly state the moral of the story, telling the reader what to think. Strong endings for expository texts can summarize the highlights, restate the main points, or end with a final zinger statement to drive home the main point to the audience.
Cohesion: the glue that holds the structure together
If narrative and expository structures are the framework, cohesive elements such as transition words are the glue that holds these structural elements together. Transition words show the relationship between different sentences and ideas. Poor writers tend to loosely connect their sentences with and and then. Good writers use transition words that show causal and logical relationships between words, sentences and paragraphs, such as because and after.
Transition words
There are six categories of transition words:
1. Spatial order. Words used in descriptive writing to signal spatial relationships, such as above, below, beside, nearby, beyond, inside, and outside.
2. Time order. Words used in writing narratives, and instructions to signal chronological sequence, such as before, after, first, next, then, when, finally, while, as, during, earlier, later, and meanwhile.
3. Numerical order. Words used in expository writing to signal order of importance, such as first, second, also, finally, in addition, equally important, and more or less importantly.
4. Cause/effect order. Words used in expository writing to signal causal relationships, such as because, since, for, so, as a result, consequently, thus, and hence.
5. Comparison/contrast order. Words used in expository writing to signal similarities and differences, such as (for similarities) also, additionally, just as, as if, as though, like, and similarly; and (for differences) but, yet, only, although, whereas, in contrast, conversely, however, on the other hand, rather, instead, in spite of, and nevertheless.
6. General/specific order. Words used in descriptive reports and arguments to signal more specific elaboration on an idea, such as for example, such as, like, namely, for instance, that is, in fact, in other words, and indeed.
Guiding questions for organization
These guiding questions for organization can help students make sure that they have provided coherent transitions between the ideas in their writing.
· Does your piece have a clear beginning, middle, and end?
· Does your piece have a strong beginning that hooks the reader?
· Does your piece have a strong ending that fits the focus?
· Are the ideas and actions connected to each other?
· Can your reader follow the piece logically from beginning to end?
· Is it complete? Does it feel finished?
References
Spiegel, D. L. (1981). Six alternatives to the directed reading activity. The Reading Teacher, 34, 914-922.
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