SYNTAX

SYNTAX.....is the study of language, which deals with the
i) Word classes and their functions,
ii) Combination of words into phrases, clauses and sentences,
iii) Classification and analysis of sentences.
Word classes
· are parts of speech as nouns,pronouns,adjectives,verbs, conjunction ,preposition etc.
· they are categorized into two groups namely;
a) Open word classes (or major word class) and
b) Closed word classes (or minor word class)
Closed word classes
These are sometimes called closed system because they cannot normally be extended by creating new other members. These are;
· Determiners
· Pronouns
· Conjunctions
· Prepositions
· Auxiliary verbs
PRONOUNS
A pronouns is a word that takes the place of a noun as
Eg.Juma is studying can be replaced by He is studying

Classes of pronouns
· Personal pronoun
Refers to a specific person or thing by indicating the person speaking (the first person), the person being addressed (the second person), or any other person or thing being discussed (third person)
Examples Singular Plural
First person I , me we,us
Second person You you
Third person He, him, her, she,it they,them
· Possessive pronouns
These are personal pronouns which indicate ownership.
Examples Singular Plural
First person my,mine our,ours
Second person Your,yours your,yours
Third person his, her, hers, its their, theirs
· Reflexive and intensive pronouns
The reflexive and intensive pronouns are formed when –self or –selves is added to certain personal and possessive pronouns
Examples
Myself, yourself, himself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves, himself, herself, itself and yourself

A reflexive pronoun refers to a noun or another pronoun and indicates that the same person or thing is involved.
Examples
i. I promised myself that I would practice more
ii. She taught herself to play the guitar
iii. Form five students organized tuition by themselves
An intensive pronoun adds emphasis to another noun or pronoun
i. You yourself cant answer that riddle
ii. Juan himself painted his room
iii. I wrote that poem myself
· Demonstrative pronoun, points out specific persons, places, things, or ideas
i. This is the record I want
ii. Play that again
iii. These were left here after last night’s party
· Interrogative pronouns
An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun used to form question
i. Who are the captains?
ii. Whom should I ask to help?
iii. Whose did you use?
· Relative pronouns
Is apronoun that is used to introduce a relative (subordinate) clause
i. George W.Bushi,the man who initiated Iraq war,was once sued of driving drunken {the relative pronoun who begins the subordinate clause who initiated Iraq war}
ii. Zitto Kabwe was fired from the Bunge, which is allocated in Dodoma Town.{the relative pronoun which begins the subordinate clause which is allocated in Dodoma Town}
iii. A woman that married Masoud was nicknamed Dolly.
· Indefinite Pronouns:
Are pronouns which refer to persons,places or things in a more general way than a noun does.these include: someone, anyone no one ,everyone, each somebody ,anybody, nobody ,everybody,(n)either something ,anything,, nothing ,and everything.
Examples:
Somebody is coming to dinner.
Neither of us believes a word Harry says.
Both are expected at the airport at the same time.
Several have suggested canceling the meeting.
Indefinite pronouns can use apostrophes to indicate possessive case.
Examples:
The accident is nobody’s fault.
How will the roadwork affect one's daily commute?

DETERMINERS
Determiners are words placed in front of a noun to make it clear what the noun refers to. For example the word “people” by itself is a general reference to some group of human beings. If some one says “ these people”, we know which group they are talking about, and if they say, “ a lot of people” we know how big the group is.
Classes of Determines
There are several classes of determiners
· Articles; a, an and the...
· Quantifiers; a lot of, many, a few, all, both,most,enough, little, much, some ,every,each,any,no..
· Cardinal numbers; one, two, three, four, five, six, seven...
· Demonstratives; this, that, those...
· Possessive adjectives; my, our, your, their...
· Ordinal numbers; first,second,third,forth…
· General ordinals, last, latter, next, previous, and subsequent.
Pronouns and Determiners
There is considerable overlap between the determiner class and the subclass of pronouns. Many words can be both:
Pronoun
Determiner
This is a very boring book
This book is very boring
That's an excellent film
That film is excellent
As this table shows, determiners always come before a noun, but pronouns are more independent than this.

Possessive Pronoun
Determiner
The white car is mine
My car is white
Yours is the blue coat
Your coat is blue
The car in the garage is his/hers
His/her car is in the garage

Types of determiners
· Pre determiners; all, both, half, double, twice, such. One-third.
· Central determiners; all articles, demonstratives, possessives, quantifiers.
· Post-determiners; cardinals, ordinals.
Note on quantifiers
Quantifiers are words that precede and modify nouns. They tell us how many or how much. Selecting the correct quantifier depends on your understanding the distinction between Count and Non-Count Nouns.
The following quantifiers will work with count nouns:
Many trees a few trees few trees several treesa couple of trees none of the trees
The following quantifiers will work with non-count nouns:
not much dancing a little dancinglittle dancing a bit of dancing a good deal of dancing a great deal of dancing
The following quantifiers will work with both count and non-count nouns:
All of the trees/dancing some trees/dancing most of the trees/dancing enough trees/dancing a lot of trees/dancing lots of trees/dancing plenty of trees/dancing a lack of trees/dancing
1. There is an important difference between "a little" and "little"and between "a few" and "few" . If I say that Laurent has a little experience in management that means that although Laurent is no great expert he does have some experience and that experience might well be enough for our purposes. If I say that Laurent has little experience in management that means that he doesn't have enough experience.

2. If I say that Hilda owns a few books on Latin American literature that means that she has some books — not a lot of books, but probably enough for our purposes. If I say that Hilda owns few books on Latin American literature, that means she doesn't have enough for our purposes and we'd better go to the library.

Note that the quantifier "most of the" must include the definite article the when it modifies a specific noun, whether it's a count or a non-count noun: "most of the instructors at this college have a doctorate"; "most of the water has evaporated." With a general plural noun, however (when you are not referring to a specific entity), the "of the" is dropped:
· Most colleges have their own admissions policy.
· Most students apply to several colleges.

The Ordering of Determiners
Determiners occur before nouns, and they are distinguished in three classes of determiners.


Predeterminer
Central Determiner
Postdeterminer
Noun
I met
all
my
many
friends
Predeterminers
Predeterminers specify quantity in the noun which follows them, and they are
· "Multiplying" expressions, including expressions ending in times:
twice my salary double my salary ten times my salary
· Fractions
half my salary one-third my salary
· The words all and both:
all my salary both my salaries

Central Determiners
The definite article the and the indefinite article a/an are the most common central determiners: all the book half a chapter
As many of our previous examples show, the word my can also occupy the central determiner slot. This is equally true of the other possessives: all your money all his/her money all our money all their money
The demonstratives, too, are central determiners:
all these problems twice that size four times this amount

Post determiners
Cardinal and ordinal numerals occupy the post determiner slot:
the two children his fourth birthday
This applies also to general ordinals:
my next project our last meeting your previous remark her subsequent letter
Other quantifying expressions are also post determiners:
my many friends our several achievements the few friends that I have

ARTICLES
An article is a word that combines with a noun to indicate the type of reference being made by the noun. The three main articles in the English language are the, an and a. An article is sometimes called a Noun marker, although this is generally considered to be an archaic term.
WHAT IS A DEFINITE ARTICLE? Definite article refers to some specific thing as contrasted with "a" or "an" which does not refer to one specific individual or individuals of a noun.
Thus, if I say "the book", you know to which book I refer, as opposed to "a book" which is general and does not refer to any specific book.

Uses of the definite article.
· Is used to refer to the noun that has been previously mentioned
Examples
i. I saw a funny-looking dog yesterday [first mention, indefinite]. It looked like a cross between a Pekinese and a German shepherd. When it saw my cat, the dog ran away [second mention, definite].
ii. A man is walking down a road. There is a dog with the man.
iii. Combine butter, sugar and eggs. Add flour to the mixture.
· Is used to refer to something existing in a certain place
Examples
i. The Prime Minister will arrive tomorrow {Because there is only one Prime Minister in a country, and so it is clear to whom you are referring} Similarly, if there is only one hospital in the town, you can say
ii. He's been working in the hospital for two years. But you couldn't say this in Mwanza, where there are many hospitals. You would have to name the particular hospital in your first reference to it.

· Is used to referring to unique objects:
Examples
i. The sun
ii. The earth
iii. The Pope
iv. The sky
v. The equator
· Is used for superlative or ranking adjective
Examples
i. The tallest girl in the class is 6'2" tall. [There can be only one girl who is the tallest.]
ii. Please read the fourth paragraph on page 3. [There can be only one fourth paragraph.]
iii. Today is the most important day of my life. [There can be only one day that is the most important.]
iv. Mwanza City is the most populous city in the lake zone
v. I enjoyed the first part, but I was disappointed at the end
vi. She is the principal researcher
· Is used when the noun is post modified
Post modification means that if the noun is followed by a dependent clause (who/which/that) or a prepositional phrase (of/in/to...), it is made definite
Example
i. The man who lives next door is Chinese
ii. We take the regular collection of garbage for granted
iii. The journey to Vancouver take three days by train
iv. No one expected the results that were found
v. Do you remember the girl who went camping with us?
· Used to refer to systems of communication and the mass media.
Examples
i. The telephone is the system of communication
ii. I am listening to the radio Tanzania Dar es Salaam
iii. The newspapers are all in agreement on the latest financial disaster.
Exception: television usually has no article: Did you see him on television?
· Is used to refer to all means of transportation:
i. How long does it take on the bus?
ii. The lorry was bombed last week as we were in it
iii. The subway is quicker
Exception if you use the construction "by PLUS means of transport," there is no article: I go by subway].
· Used to refer to all forms of entertainment in general rather than in particular
i. I enjoy seeing the ballet.
ii. I never miss the nightclub
To refer to a particular event, use the indefinite article:
i. I saw a good movie last night.
· Used to refer to place/object of activity nouns:
Certain nouns refer to either a place/object or to an activity. When they refer to an activity, do not use the definite article: Examples
Activity
Object
I go to bed at 11 o'clock.
Don't jump on the bed.
She went to school for many years.
The school was too small.
Many families eat dinner together.
The dinner was delicious.
I shower before breakfast.
The breakfast was delicious.
They are at church.
The church is very old.
She is in class.
The class is in Room 102.

· Used to refer to the periods of time:
Names of decades, centuries and historic periods take the definite article, as they are a form of unique reference:
i. The 1960s were a time of student rebellion
ii. I will never for get the year 2000 in my life
iii. During the famine century, many Tanzania perished
· Is used to refer to something specific that is known to both the writer/speaker and the reader/listener.
WHAT IS AN INDEFINITE ARTICLE? The indefinite article is just the opposite of the definite article. In English, the indefinite articles are "a, an, some, any." They are "indefinite" because they do not refer to a particular thing as "the" does, but simply refer to an individual or individuals of the noun in a broad sense.
Example
i. I point to a bookshelf full of books and say, "Give me the book.", pointing to the largest book on the shelf. or
ii. I point to a bookshelf full of books and say, "Give me a book.", waving my finger only in the general direction of the top shelf.
In the second scenario, you are free to pick any book that might be on the bookshelf because "a" does not refer to a particular book. However, in the first scenario, it is clear that I'm referring to a particular book because of the word "the."
Uses of indefinite article
· Is used to refer to collective nouns take the indefinite article
Examples
i. A box of matches
ii. A deck of cards
iii. A bar of soap
iv. A herd of cows.
· Used when the noun has been mentioned for the first mention
i. I saw a funny-looking dog yesterday [first mention, indefinite]. It looked like a cross between a Pekinese and a German shepherd. When it saw my cat, the dog ran away [second mention, definite].
ZERO ARTICLES
Zero article means no article.Several kinds of nouns never use articles.
· We do not use articles with the names of languages
Example "He was learning Chinese." [But when the word Chinese refers to the people, the definite article might come into play: "The Chinese are hoping to get the next Olympics."]),
· We don’t use article for the names of sports eg. ("She plays badminton and basketball."), and
· We don’t use article for the names academic subjects ("She's taking economics and math. Her major is Religious Studies.")
· Common count nouns are used without articles in certain special situations:
Use zero article when idiomatic expressions using be and go
Example
We'll go by train. (as opposed to "We'll take the train.)He must be in school.
· With seasons use ziro artcle
Example
In spring, we like to clean the house.
· With institutions use zero article
Example
He's in church/college/jail/class.
· With meals use zero article
Example
Breakfast was delicious. He's preparing dinner by himself.
· With diseases use zero article
Example
He's dying of pneumonia.Appendicitis nearly killed him.She has cancer
(You will sometimes hear "the measles," "the mumps," but these, too, can go without articles.)
· With time of day use zero article
Example
We traveled mostly by night.We'll be there around midnight.

GENERIC AND SPECIFIC REFERENCE
Generic reference is used when one refers to a whole group or class, to generalize about all possible members of a group. There are five patterns one can use: Generic reference: We can refer to something in a generic way by using any of the three articles. We can do the same thing by omitting the article altogether.
i. A beagle makes a great hunting dog and family companion.
ii. An airedale is sometimes a rather skittish animal.
iii. The golden retriever is a marvelous pet for children.
Irish setters are not the highly intelligent animals they used to be.
a) No article PLUS plural count noun:
It's astonishing what gymnasts can do.
b) No article PLUS non count noun:
Love can cause a lot of suffering.
c) Indefinite article PLUS singular count noun:
It's astonishing what a gymnast can do. This pattern cannot be used to discuss the location or existence of something/someone.
d) Definite article PLUS singular count noun:
It's astonishing what the gymnast can do.
e) Definite article PLUS plural nationality noun:
The Chinese have an ancient culture.
CONJUNCTION
Conjunction is a word that used to link words, phrases, and clauses, as in the following example:
i) I ate the pizza and the pasta.
ii) Call the movers when you are ready.
Co-ordinating Conjunctions
You use a co-ordinating conjunction ("and," "but," "or," "nor," "for," "so," or "yet") to join individual words, phrases, and independent clauses.
Coordinating conjunctions go in between items joined, not at the beginning or end.
· Subordinating Conjunctions
A subordinating conjunction introduces a dependent clause and indicates the nature of the relationship among the independent clause(s) and the dependent clause(s).
The most common subordinating conjunctions are
"after," "although," "as," "because," "before," "how," "if," "once," "since," "than," "that," "though," "till," "until," "when," "where," "whether," and "while."
Examples
1. After she had learned to drive, Alice felt more independent.
The subordinating conjunction "after" introduces the dependent clause "After she had learned to drive."
2. If the paperwork arrives on time, your cheque will be mailed on Tuesday.
Similarly, the subordinating conjunction "if" introduces the dependent clause "If the paperwork arrives on time."
3. Gerald had to begun his thesis over again when his computer crashed.
The subordinating conjunction "when" introduces the dependent clause "when his computer crashed."
4. Midwifery advocates argue that home births are safer because the mother and baby are exposed to fewer people and fewer germs.
In this sentence, the dependent clause "because the mother and baby are exposed to fewer people and fewer germs" is introduced by the subordinating conjunction "because."
· Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions always appear in pairs -- you use them to link equivalent sentence elements. The most common correlative conjunctions are "both...and," "either...or," "neither...nor,", "not only...but also," "so...as," and "whether...or." (Technically correlative conjunctions consist simply of a co-ordinating conjunction linked to an adjective or adverb.)
Example
i. Both my grandfather and my father worked in the steel plant.
ii. Bring either a Jello salad or a potato scallop.
iii. Corinne is trying to decide whether to go to medical school or to go to law school.
iv. The explosion destroyed not only the school but also the neighbouring pub.

AUXILIARY VERBS
The most common auxiliary verbs are "be," "do," and "have", and you may also use these verbs on their own. You use "Will" and "shall" to express future time.
Examples
i. She is the chief engineer.
ii. The tea cups are in the china cabinet.
iii. Garth does this kind of thing frequently.
Other common auxiliaries are "can," "could," "may," "might," "must," "ought," "should," "will," and "would." A verb like these is called a modal auxiliary and expresses necessity, obligation, or possibility.
Examples
Zora was pleased to learn that she could take several days off.
The small freckled girl told her neighbours that she would walk their dog for an appropriate fee.
Henry told Eliza that she ought to have the hole in the bucket fixed.
The principal told the assembled students that the school board might introduce a dress code next autumn.
According to the instructions, we must leave this goo in our hair for twenty minutes.
Note auxiliary verbs are distinguished from other verbs by two characteristics:
Support role: They are each followed by a non-finite verb (raining, been, overcharged) which they 'support' in various ways. The term 'auxiliary verb' refers to this support role. (Think of 'auxiliary teacher', a support teacher.)
Inversion role.: They are syntactically special in a number of ways that are quite separate from the support role; for example, English auxiliary verbs are unlike other verbs in allowing subject inversion:
Example; It is raining. - Is it raining?
'Catenative verbs'
The trouble is that these two characteristics are separate and each define a different group of verbs, to which grammarians give distinct names:Support role verbs that combine with a following non-finite verb are often called 'catenative verbs' (where the term 'catenative' means 'chaining' - Latin catena, 'chain'). This term includes verbs like get, keep, start, help as well as the traditional auxiliary verbs:
Examples
i) She was/got chosen for the job.
ii) She was/kept talking.
iii) She ought/started to talk.
iv) She will/helped wash up.
Inversion, etc.: verbs that allow subject inversion (and other grammatical patterns to be listed below) are called 'operators', so the rule for subject inversion is: 'put an operator before the subject'.
Examples
i) She is ready. - Is she ready?
ii) She has some money. - Has she any money?
Characteristics auxiliary verbs
· Subject inversion:
i) He was run over by a bus. - Was he run over by a bus?
ii) He got run over by a bus. - but: *Got he run over by a bus?
· Negation. A clause is made negative by adding not or suffixed n't after its finite auxiliary verb:
o It is not raining. - It isn't raining.
o He is not ready. - He isn't ready.
o But not: *He got not run over by a bus. - NOR: *He gotn't run over by a bus.
· Do-support. If a clause is negative or interrogative but does not already contain an auxiliary, the appropriate form of do is added. Adding do is NOT possible before an auxiliary.
i) He did not get run over by a bus. - Did he get run over by a bus?
ii) But not: *He did not be run over by a bus. NOR: *Did he be run over by a bus?
iii) Nor: *He did not be ready. nor: *Did he be ready?
· Adverbs. Some adverbs (e.g. never, sometimes, soon, obviously) can occur in 'medial' position, which is either just before or (preferably) after an auxiliary verb or just before (but not after) a non-auxiliary.
§ People never get run over. but: *People get never run over.
§ People never are run over. - People are never run over.
§ He never is ready. - He is never ready.
· Contraction. Many auxiliary verbs have a 'contracted' form, but no non-auxiliary does:
i) It is raining. - It's raining.
ii) It keeps raining. but: *Itk'ps raining.
iii) He is ready. - He's ready.
INTERJECTION
An interjection is a word added to a sentence to convey emotion. It is not grammatically related to any other part of the sentence.
You usually follow an interjection with an exclamation mark. Interjections are uncommon in formal academic prose, except in direct quotations.
The highlighted words in the following sentences are interjections:
Ouch, that hurt!
Oh no, I forgot that the exam was today.
Hey! Put that down!
I heard one guy say to another guy, "He has a new car, eh?"
I don't know about you but, good lord, I think taxes are too high!

LINKING VERBS( copular)
A linking verb implies state of being or condition for the subject, not action. It links the subject to an equivalent word in the sentence. Examples
a. The test indicates that Neema is a genius.
b. Toni Morrison was the first African-American woman to win the Nobel Peace Prize.
Linking verbs or copular verbs link a subject to a complement.they MUST be followed by a complement in order to make the sentence complete. The complement can be a subject complement or an adverbial, and occurs in two sentence types which are of the Subject-Verb-Complement (SVC) and Subject-Verb-Adverbial (SVA) pattern.
Types:
There are two groups of linking verbs:
i) Current linking verbs and
ii) Resulting linking verbs.
Current linking verbs.Current linking verbs indicate a state. Resulting linking.Resulting linking verbs indicate that the role of the verb complement is a result of the process described in the verb.
· Subject-Verb-Complement
A. The complement is a noun phrase or noun clause:
This is a really nice outfit.
The anwer is that we don't want to go to the party.
He became a beggar.
B. To be can occur between the linking verb and the complement. Although this "to be" is not necessary, both American English and British English prefer an infinitive construction with to be rather than simply a noun phrase.
She seems (to be) all right.
He proved (to be) a good husband.
She appears (to be) exhausted.
Some linking verbs are restricted as to the words that may occur in their complement. Examples are: rest (assured), run (wild), plead (innocent), fall (silent).
C. The complement is an adjective.
He became very restless (when his son did not come home on time).
Your house looks very clean.
She stayed calm.
Subject-Verb-Adverbial
The main linking verb that allows an adverbial as complementation is to be. The most common adverbials are place and time adverbials.
Tom is in the bathroom..
My uncle lives in Belgium.
The party will be at three o'clock.

The Verb BE:
Some grammarians refer to the verb be as "the copula" since this is its main function in English. All the forms of be can be used as a linking verb. Be is the main verb of the sentence, rather than the auxiliary and is used in both SVC and SVA patterns.
i) I am at the office between 9 and 5.
ii) This is a really good class.
iii) Those books were very expensive.
iv) The students have been exhausted since the midterm.
v) Their wedding will be in early May.

LISTS OF THE MOST COMMON LINKING VERBS:
· Current Linking Verbs
Appear John appeared happy when the company promoted him.
Be The graduate students are in Classroom South, Room 106.
Feel She felt really happy with the new baby.
Lie The pieces lay scattered over the floor.
Look This person looks really tired.
Remain Everybody remained silent for a few minutes.
Seem This secretary seems (to be) very efficient.
Smell That perfume smelled so fresh.
Sound She sounded very surprised when she heard the news.
Stay Everybody stayed calm when the fire alarm went off.
Taste This grapefruit tastes very bitter.

· Resulting Linking Verbs
Become He became a successful business man.
Get She got upset with her students.
Grow The professor grew unhappy because the students were not listening well.
Fall My brother fell in love at the party.
Prove The new secretary proved (to be) very friendly.
Run The children ran wild.
Turn The milk turned sour.

NOUN
A noun is a word used to name a person, animal, place, thing, and abstract idea. Nouns are usually the first words which small children learn. The highlighted words in the following sentences are all nouns:
a. Late last year our neighbours bought a goat.
b. Portia White was an opera singer.
A noun can function in a sentence as a subject, a direct object, an indirect object, a subject complement, an object complement, an appositive, an adjective or an adverb.
Noun Plurals
Most nouns change their form to indicate number by adding "-s" or "-es", as illustrated in the following pairs of sentences:
When Matthew was small he rarely told the truth if he thought he was going to be punished.
Many people do not believe that truths are self-evident.
As they walked through the silent house. they were startled by an unexpected echo.
I like to shout into the quarry and listen to the echoes that returned.
Possessive Nouns
In the possessive case, a noun or pronoun changes its form to show that it owns or is closely related to something else. Usually, nouns become possessive by adding a combination of an apostrophe and the letter "s."
You can form the possessive case of a singular noun that does not end in "s" by adding an apostrophe and "s," as in the following sentences:
The red suitcase is Cassandra's.
The only luggage that was lost was the prime minister's.
The exhausted recruits were woken before dawn by the drill sergeant's screams.
The miner's face was covered in coal dust.
You can form the possessive case of a singular noun that ends in "s" by adding an apostrophe alone or by adding an apostrophe and "s," as in the following examples:
The bus's seats are very uncomfortable.
The bus' seats are very uncomfortable.
The film crew accidentally crushed the platypus's eggs.
The film crew accidentally crushed the platypus' eggs.
Felicia Hemans's poetry was once more popular than Lord Byron's.
Felicia Hemans' poetry was once more popular than Lord Byron's.
You can form the possessive case of a plural noun that does not end in "s" by adding an apostrophe and a "s," as in the following examples:
The children's mittens were scattered on the floor of the porch.
The sheep's pen was mucked out every day.
Since we have a complex appeal process, a jury's verdict is not always final.
The men's hockey team will be play as soon as the women's team is finished.
The hunter followed the moose's trail all morning but lost it in the afternoon.
You can form the possessive case of a plural noun that does end in "s" by adding an apostrophe:
The concert was interrupted by the dogs' barking, the ducks' quacking, and the babies' squalling.
The janitors' room is downstairs and to the left.
My uncle spent many hours trying to locate the squirrels' nest.
The archivist quickly finished repairing the diaries' bindings.
Religion is usually the subject of the roommates' many late night debates.
Using Possessive Nouns
· functions as an adjective modifying another noun:
i. The miner's face was covered in coal dust.
Here the possessive noun "miner's" is used to modify the noun "face" and together with the article "the," they make up the noun phrase that is the sentence's subject.
ii. The concert was interrupted by the dogs' barking, the ducks' quacking, and the babies' squalling.
In this sentence, each possessive noun modifies a gerund. The possessive noun "dogs"' modifies "barking", "ducks"' modifies "quacking," and "babies"' modifies "squalling."
iii. The film crew accidentally crushed the platypus's eggs.
In this example the possessive noun "platypus's" modifies the noun "eggs" and the noun phrase "the platypus's eggs" is the direct object of the verb "crushed."
iv. My uncle spent many hours trying to locate the squirrels' nest.
In this sentence the possessive noun "squirrels"' is used to modify the noun "nest" and the noun phrase "the squirrels' nest" is the object of the infinitive phrase "to locate."
Types of Nouns
In fact, grammarians have developed a whole series of noun types, including the proper noun, the common noun, the concrete noun, the abstract noun, the countable noun (also called the count noun), the non-countable noun (also called the mass noun), and the collective noun. You should note that a noun will belong to more than one type: it will be proper or common, abstract or concrete, and countable or non-countable or collective.
Proper Nouns
You always write a proper noun with a capital letter, since the noun represents the name of a specific person, place, or thing. The names of days of the week, months, historical documents, institutions, organisations, religions, their holy texts and their adherents are proper nouns. A proper noun is the opposite of a common noun
Examples
i) The Marroons were transported from Jamaica and forced to build the fortifications in Halifax.
ii) Many people dread Monday mornings.
iii) Beltane is celebrated on the first of May.
iv) Abraham appears in the Talmud and in the Koran.
v) Last year, I had a Baptist, a Buddhist, and a Gardnerian Witch as roommates.
Common Nouns
A common noun is a noun referring to a person, place, or thing in a general sense -- usually, you should write it with a capital letter only when it begins a sentence. A common noun is the opposite of a proper noun.
Examples
i) According to the sign, the nearest town is 60 miles away.
ii) All the gardens in the neighbourhood were invaded by beetles this summer.
iii) I don't understand why some people insist on having six different kinds of mustard in their cupboards.
iv) The road crew was startled by the sight of three large moose crossing the road.
v) Many child-care workers are underpaid.
Concrete Nouns
A concrete noun is a noun which names anything (or anyone) that you can perceive through your physical senses: touch, sight, taste, hearing, or smell. A concrete noun is the opposite of a abstract noun.
Examples
i) The judge handed the files to the clerk.
ii) Whenever they take the dog to the beach, it spends hours chasing waves.
iii) The real estate agent urged the couple to buy the second house because it had new shingles.
iv) As the car drove past the park, the thump of a disco tune overwhelmed the string quartet's rendition of a minuet.
v) The book binder replaced the flimsy paper cover with a sturdy, cloth-covered board.
Abstract Nouns
An abstract noun is a noun which names anything which you can not perceive through your five physical senses, and is the opposite of a concrete noun.
Examples
i) Buying the fire extinguisher was an afterthought.
ii) Tillie is amused by people who are nostalgic about childhood.
iii) Justice often seems to slip out of our grasp.
iv) Some scientists believe that schizophrenia is transmitted genetically.
Countable Nouns
A countable noun (or count noun) is a noun with both a singular and a plural form, and it names anything (or anyone) that you can count.
Examples
i) We painted the table red and the chairs blue.
ii) Since he inherited his aunt's library, Jerome spends every weekend indexing his books.
iii) Miriam found six silver dollars in the toe of a sock.
iv) The oak tree lost three branches in the hurricane.
v) Over the course of twenty-seven years, Martha Ballad delivered just over eight hundred babies.
Non-Countable Nouns
A non-countable noun (or mass noun) is a noun which does not have a plural form, and which refers to something that you could (or would) not usually count. A non-countable noun always takes a singular verb in a sentence.
Examples
i) Joseph Priestly discovered oxygen.
ii) Oxygen is essential to human life.
iii) We decided to sell the furniture rather than take it with use when we moved.
You cannot make the noun "furniture" plural.
i) The furniture is heaped in the middle of the room.
ii) The crew spread the gravel over the roadbed.
You cannot make the non-countable noun "gravel" plural.
i) Gravel is more expensive than I thought.
Collective Nouns
A collective noun is a noun naming a group of things, animals, or persons. You could count the individual members of the group, but you usually think of the group as a whole is generally as one unit. You need to be able to recognise collective nouns in order to maintain subject-verb agreement. A collective noun is similar to a non-countable noun, and is roughly the opposite of a countable noun.
Examples
i) The flock of geese spends most of its time in the pasture.
ii) The jury is dining on take-out chicken tonight.
iii) The steering committee meets every Wednesday afternoon.
iv) The class was startled by the bursting light bulb.

NOUN PHRASE
How to spot a noun phrase? Noun phrases are built around a noun. This is the head of a noun phrase. However, noun phrases are often much more complex than just the head noun and a possible determiner, like a cat or these dogs. Very often there are all sorts of elements modifying the head and it can be quite difficult to decide where exactly the noun phrase begins and ends. A good way of deciding this is to try to replace the noun phrase with a pronoun (he, she, it, they, etc.). Remember that pronouns replace whole noun phrases, not just the head noun.
A. STRUCTURE OF NOUN PHRASES
(Determiner(s))
(Premodifier(s))
HEAD
(Postmodifier(s))
Predet. (half, all, double)
Adjective
Noun
Relative clause
Central (the, a, this)
Participle
Pronoun
Prepositional phrase
Postdet. (seven, many, few)
Noun
Nominal adjective (e.g. the red)
Adverb

Genitive

Adjective

Adverb


POSTMODIFICATION (i.e. after the head)
(1) Relative clauses, both finite and non-finite
i) [The girl who spoke to him] is my best friend. / [The girl speaking to him] is my best friend.
ii) [The question that was debated in Parliament yesterday] was about abortion laws. / [The question debated in Parliament yesterday] was about abortion laws.
iii) [The question that will be debated tomorrow] is whether income tax should be increased. / [The question to be debated tomorrow] is whether income tax should be increased.
Restrictive relative clauses are not separated with commas, non-restrictive ones are:
My wife who speaks five languages… vs. My wife, who speaks five languages,…
(2) Prepositional phrases (common postmodifiers!)
i) the road to London, a man of courage, the key to a prolonged recovery, the pleasure of your company, his life after the war, a man like John, a tree by a stream, passengers on board the ship
(3) Adverb phrases
ii) [The road back] was dense with traffic.
( 4) Adjective phrases
iii) [Anyone keen on modern jazz] should not miss this opportunity.

PREMODIFICATION (i.e. before the head)
1) Adjective
iv) I visited [his delightful cottage].
v) …his really quite unbelievably delightful cottage… (modifier modified)
2) Participle
i) I visited [his crumbling cottage].
ii) I visited [his completed cottage].
3) -s genitive
i) I visited [his fisherman’s cottage]. (belongs/ed to a fisherman? resembles a fisherman’s cottage?)
4) Noun
ii) I visited [his country cottage].
5) Adverb
iii) I visited [his far-away cottage].
6) Clause
iv) I visited [his pop-down-for-the-week-end cottage].
v) a do-it-yourself store

VARIATIONS IN MODIFICATION
a) a single head:
The girl in the corner talking to Peter…
His brilliant last book…
b) multiple head:
The girl and the boy in the corner…
The new table and chairs…
c) modifier modified:
The girl (in the corner (nearest the door))…
His (((quite) unbelievably) delightful) cottage…
d) discontinuous modification:
You’ll meet a man tomorrow carrying a heavy parcel.
APPOSITION
Appositive structures are common in formal, written texts. Two or more noun phrases are in apposition when they have identity of reference, i.e. they refer to the same thing. Sometimes apposition is indicated with the conjunction or, or with linking adverbials like that is, in other words, namely.
[Linguistics] or [the study of language] attracts many students.
[The outcome], that is [her re-election], was a complete surprise.
He was examined by [James Kelly] [the doctor].
He was examined by [James Kelly], [a doctor].
The hope in Northern Ireland is that [Sinn Fein,] [the political army of the I.R.A.,] will be...
B. FUNCTIONS OF NOUN PHRASES
On sentence or clause level you can find NPs in the following syntactic functions:
Subject: My earliest memory of theatre is going to the Hippodrome…
Direct object: Sign your name there.
Indirect object: I always tell people I’m not a musical person.
Subject Complement: She is a very nice person.
Object Complement: They elected him president.
Adverbial: You have to wait a long time. It’s coming out this way.
You can also find nouns and noun phrases within other phrases:
Complement of a preposition: Let’s go there [in the morning].
Premodifier of a noun: a country cottage
Premodifier of an adjective: It’s sixteen feet long.
A vocative — an addressed person's name or substitute name — is often a single word but sometimes takes the form of a noun phrase. A vocative is always treated as a parenthetical element and is thus set off from the rest of the sentence with a comma or a pair of commas (if it appears within the flow of a sentence). When vocatives are proper nouns (usually the case), they are also referred to as "nouns of address." Vocatives are like adverbs: they can pop up almost anywhere in the sentence. Do not, however, get into the habit of throwing commas at people's names; unless the name refers to someone who is actually being addressed, it is not a vocative and will not necessarily be parenthetical:
i) He told Jorge to turn the boat around.
ii) Jorge, turn the boat around
PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE
A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition, a noun or pronoun that serves as the object of the preposition, and, more often than not, an adjective or two that modifies the object. Ernest Hemingway apparently fell in love with the rhythms of his prepositional phrases at the beginning of his short story "Hills Like White Elephants":
The hills across the valley of the Ebro were long and white. On this side there was no shade and no trees and the station was between two lines of rails in the sun. Close against the side of the station there was the warm shadow of the building and a curtain, made of strings of bamboo beads, hung across the open door into the bar, to keep out flies. The American and the girl with him sat at a table in the shade, outside the building. It was very hot and the express from Barcelona would come in forty minutes. It stopped at this junction for two minutes and went on to Madrid.
Prepositional phrases usually tell when or where: "in forty minutes," "in the sun, against the side, etc." Prepositional phrases can perform other functions, however: Except Jo, the children were remarkably like their father.
A prepositional phrase at the beginning of a sentence constitutes an introductory modifier, which is usually a signal for a comma. However, unless an introductory prepositional phrase is unusually long, we seldom need to follow it with a comma.
You may have learned that ending a sentence with a preposition is a serious breach of grammatical etiquette. It doesn't take a grammarian to spot a sentence-ending preposition, so this is an easy rule to get caught up on (!). Although it is often easy to remedy the offending preposition, sometimes it isn't, and repair efforts sometimes result in a clumsy sentence. Based on shaky historical precedent, the rule itself is a latecomer to the rules of writing. Those who dislike the rule are fond of recalling Churchill's rejoinder: <"That is nonsense up with which I shall not put." We should also remember the child's complaint (attributed to E.B. White): "What did you bring that book that I don't like to be read to out of up for?"
APPOSITIVE PHRASE
An appositive is a re-naming or amplification of a word that immediately precedes it. (An appositive, then is the opposite of an oppositive.) Frequently another kind of phrase will serve in apposition.
My favorite teacher, a fine chess player in her own right, has won several state-level tournaments. [Noun phrase as appositive]
The best exercise, walking briskly, is also the least expensive. [Gerund phrase as appositive]
Tashonda's goal in life, to become an occupational therapist, is within her grasp this year, at last. [Infinitive phrase as appositive]
ABSOLUTE PHRASE
Usually (but not always, as we shall see), an absolute phrase (also called a nominative absolute) is a group of words consisting of a noun or pronoun and a participle as well as any related modifiers. Absolute phrases do not directly connect to or modify any specific word in the rest of the sentence; instead, they modify the entire sentence, adding information. They are always treated as parenthetical elements and are set off from the rest of the sentence with a comma or a pair of commas (sometimes by a dash or pair of dashes). Notice that absolute phrases contain a subject (which is often modified by a participle), but not a true finite verb.
Their reputation as winners secured by victory, the New York Liberty charged into the semifinals.
The season nearly finished, Rebecca Lobo and Sophie Witherspoon emerged as true leaders.
The two superstars signed autographs into the night, their faces beaming happily.
When the participle of an absolute phrase is a form of to be, such as being or having been, the participle is often left out but understood.
The season [being] over, they were mobbed by fans in Times Square.
[Having been] Stars all their adult lives, they seemed used to the attention.
Another kind of absolute phrase is found after a modified noun; it adds a focusing detail or point of focus to the idea of the main clause. This kind of absolute phrase can take the form of a prepositional phrase, an adjective phrase, or a noun phrase.
The old firefighter stood over the smoking ruins, his senses alert to any sign of another flare-up.
His subordinates, their faces sweat-streaked and smudged with ash, leaned heavily against the firetruck.
They knew all too well how all their hard work could be undone — in an instant.
It is not unusual for the information supplied in the absolute phrase to be the most important element in the sentence. In fact, in descriptive prose, the telling details will often be wrapped into a sentence in the form of an absolute phrase:
Coach Nykesha strolled onto the court, her arms akimbo and a large silver whistle clenched between her teeth.
The new recruits stood in one corner of the gym, their uniforms stiff and ill fitting, their faces betraying their anxiety.
A noun phrase can also exist as an absolute phrase:
Your best friends, where are they now, when you need them?
And then there was my best friend Sally — the dear girl — who has certainly fallen on hard times.
It might be useful to review the material on Misplaced Modifiers because it is important not to confuse an absolute phrase with a misplaced modifier.
INFINITIVE PHRASE
An infinitive phrase consists of an infinitive — the root of the verb preceded by to — and any modifiers or complements associated with it. Infinitive phrases can act as adjectives, adverbs, and nouns.
Her plan to subsidize child care won wide acceptance among urban politicians. [modifies plan, functions as an adjective]
She wanted to raise taxes. [noun-object of the sentence]
To watch Uncle Billy tell this story is an eye-opening experience. [noun-subject of the sentence]
To know her is to love her. [noun, predicate nominative]
Juan went to college to study veterinary medicine. [tells us why he went, so it's an adverb]
GERUND PHRASE
Gerunds, verbals that end in -ing and that act as nouns, frequently are associated with modifiers and complements in a gerund phrase. These phrases function as units and can do anything that a noun can do. Notice that other phrases, especially prepositional phrases, are frequently part of the gerund phrase.
Cramming for tests is not a good study strategy. [gerund phrase as subject]
John enjoyed swimming in the lake after dark. [gerund phrase as object]
I'm really not interested in studying biochemistry for the rest of my life. [gerund phrase as object of the preposition in ]
Reviewing the general uses of gerunds and infinitives might not be a bad idea. Click HERE.
PARTICIPIAL PHRASE
Present participles, verbals ending in -ing, and past participles, verbals that end in -ed (for regular verbs) or other forms (for irregular verbs), are combined with complements and modifiers and become part of important phrasal structures. Participial phrases always act as adjectives. When they begin a sentence, they are often set off by a comma (as an introductory modifier); otherwise, participial phrases will be set off by commas if they are parenthetical elements.
The stone steps, having been worn down by generations of students, needed to be replaced. [modifies "steps"]
Working around the clock, the firefighters finally put out the last of the California brush fires. [modifies "firefighters"]
The pond, frozen over since early December, is now safe for ice-skating. [modifies "pond"]


CLAUSES:
Definition
A clause is a group of related words containing a subject and a verb A clause can be usefully distinguished from a phrase, which is a group of related words that does not contain a subject-verb relationship, such as "in the morning" or "running down the street" or "having grown used to this harassment." A review of the different kinds of phrases might be helpful.
Words We Use to Talk about Clauses
Learning the various terms used to define and classify clauses can be a vocabulary lesson in itself. This digital handout categorizes clauses into independent and dependent clauses. This simply means that some clauses can stand by themselves, as separate sentences, and some can't. Another term for dependent clause is subordinate clause: this means that the clause is subordinate to another element (the independent clause) and depends on that other element for its meaning. The subordinate clause is created by a subordinating conjunction or dependent word.
An independent clause, "She is older than her brother" (which could be its own sentence), can be turned into a dependent or subordinate clause when the same group of words begins with a dependent word (or a subordinating conjunction in this case): "Because she is older than her brother, she tells him what to do."
Clauses are also classified as restrictive and nonrestrictive clauses. (The words essential and nonessential are sometimes used and mean the same thing as restrictive and nonrestrictive, respectively. British grammarians will make this same distinction by referring to clauses with the terms defining and non-defining.) A nonrestrictive clause is not essential to the meaning of the sentence; it can be removed from the sentence without changing its basic meaning. Nonrestrictive clauses are often set apart from the rest of the sentence by a comma or a pair of commas (if it's in the middle of a sentence).
Professor Villa, who used to be a secretary for the President, can type 132 words a minute.
Review the Notorious Confusables section on the difference between That and Which for additional clarification on the distinction between restrictive and nonrestrictive.
Relative clauses are dependent clauses introduced by a Relative Pronoun (that, which, whichever, who, whoever, whom, whomever, whose, and of which). Relative clauses can be either restrictive or nonrestrictive. Review the section on Comma Usage for additional help in determining whether relative clauses are restrictive or nonrestrictive (parenthetical or not) and whether commas should be used to set them off from the rest of the sentence. In a relative clause, the relative pronoun is the subject of the verb (remember that all clauses contain a subject-verb relationship) and refers to (relates to) something preceding the clause.
Giuseppe said that the plantar wart, which had been bothering him for years, had to be removed.
(In this sentence, the clause in this color is a restrictive [essential] clause [a noun clause — see below] and will not be set off by a comma; the underlined relative clause [modifying "wart"] is nonrestrictive [nonessential — it can be removed from the sentence without changing the meaning of the sentence] and is set off by commas.)
Some relative clauses will refer to more than a single word in the preceding text; they can modify an entire clause or even a series of clauses.
Charlie didn't get the job in administration, which really surprised his friends.Charlie didn't get the job in administration, and he didn't even apply for the Dean's position, which really surprised his friends.
A relative clause that refers to or modifies entire clauses in this manner is called a sentential clause. Sometimes the "which" of a sentential clause will get tucked into the clause as the determiner of a noun:
Charlie might very well take a job as headmaster, in which case the school might as well close down.
Elliptical Clauses:
Finally, everybody's favorite clause is the Santa Clause, which needs no further definition:

Independent Clauses
Independent Clauses could stand by themselves as discrete sentences, except that when they do stand by themselves, separated from other clauses, they're normally referred to simply as sentences, not clauses. The ability to recognize a clause and to know when a clause is capable of acting as an independent unit is essential to correct writing and is especially helpful in avoiding sentence fragments and run-on sentences..
Needless to say, it is important to learn how to combine independent clauses into larger units of thought. In the following sentence, for example,
Bob didn't mean to do it, but he did it anyway.
we have two independent clauses — "Bob didn't mean to do it" and "he did it anyway" — connected by a comma and a coordinating conjunction ("but"). If the word "but" is missing from this sentence, the sentence would be called a comma splice: two independent clauses would be incorrectly connected, smooshed together, with only a comma between them. Furthermore, a long series of clauses of similar structure and length begins to feel monotonous, leading to what is called "Dick and Jane" or primer language (after the kind of prose that we find in first grade textbooks or "primers"). (See the section on Avoiding Primer Language for advice and exercises on combining sentences.) It would also be helpful at this time to review the section on Punctuation Between Two Independent Clauses.
Clauses are combined in three different ways: coordination, subordination, and by means of a semicolon. Coordination involves joining independent clauses with one of the coordinating conjunctions: and, but, or, nor, for, yet, and sometimes* so. Clauses thus connected are usually nicely balanced in length and import.
Ramonita thought about joining the church choir, but she never talked to her friends about it.
Subordination involves turning one of the clauses into a subordinate element (one that cannot stand on its own) through the use of a Subordinating Conjunction (sometimes called a dependent word) or a Relative Pronoun. When the clause begins with a subordinating word, it is no longer an independent clause; it is called a dependent or subordinate clause because it depends on something else (the independent clause) for its meaning. There are other ways of combining ideas — by turning independent clauses into various kinds of modifying phrases. Again, see the section on Avoiding Primer Language.
Although Ramonita often thought about joining the choir, she never talked to her friends about it.
Ramonita never talked to her friends about joining the choir, because she was afraid they would make fun of her.
Yasmin is Ramonita's sister. Yasmin told Ramonita to join the choir no matter what her friends said. Joining these with the use of a relative clause:Yasmin, [who is] Ramonita's sister, told Ramonita to join the choir. . . .
Semicolons can connect two independent clauses with or without the help of a conjunctive adverb (transitional expression). Semicolons should be used sparingly and only when the two independent clauses involved are closely related and nicely balanced in terms of length and import.
Ramonita has such a beautiful voice; many couples have asked her to sing at their wedding.
Ramonita's voice has a clear, angelic quality; furthermore, she clearly enjoys using it.


Dependent Clauses
Dependent Clauses cannot stand by themselves and make good sense. They must be combined with an independent clause so that they become part of a sentence that can stand by itself. (Review the section on Commas Usage for advice and plenty of exercises on the punctuation requirements when dependent and independent clauses are combined.) Unlike independent clauses, which simply are what they are, dependent clauses are said to perform various functions within a sentence. They act either in the capacity of some kind of noun or as some kind of modifier. There are three basic kinds of dependent clauses, categorized according to their function in the sentence. Remember that a dependent clause always contains a subject and a verb, but it cannot stand by itself.
Adverb clauses provide information about what is going on in the main (independent) clause: where, when, or why. "When the movie is over, we'll go downtown." or "John wanted to write a book because he had so much to say about the subject."
Adjective clauses work like multi-word adjectives. "My brother, who is an engineer, figured it out for me." or "The bridge that collapsed in the winter storm will cost millions to replace." A special kind of adjective clause begins with a relative adverb (where, when, and why) but nonetheless functions as adjectivally.
Noun clauses can do anything that nouns can do. "What he knows [subject] is no concern of mine." or "Do you know what he knows [object]?" or "What can you tell me about what he has done this year [object of the preposition "about"]?"
What they did with the treasure remains a mystery.Whatever you want for dessert is fine with me.That you should feel this way about her came as a great surprise to us.
Juan finally revealed what he had done with the money.Her husband spent whatever she had saved over the years.I don't know what I should do next.
In fact, he wrote a book about what he had done over the years.We are interested in what he does for a living.
The trouble was that they had never been there before.The biggest disappointment of last season was that the women's team didn't make it to the final four.
My brother, who now teaches math in a small college, never liked math in high school.The dealership that sold more cars ended up actually losing money.The Federated Bank, which was founded nearly two centuries ago, folded during the state's economic crisis.
The team had fallen behind by ten points before they were able to figure out the opponent's defense.Since he started working nights, he doesn't see much of his kids.While Josie sat inside watching television, Gladys shoveled the driveway.
Combinations of Clauses
Review the section on Sentence Variety for help in understanding the variety of sentence patterns. It is difficult to know if you're using different patterns unless you keep in mind the way that clauses are combined in larger sentence-units of thought. Pay special attention to the variety of sentence types: simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex sentences. These are defined by their essential ingredients, the clauses that make them up. There is also a quiz at the end of that section that will test your ability to distinguish among the kinds of clauses that make up a sentence.
Elliptical Clauses
Elliptical Clauses are grammatically incomplete in the sense that they are missing either the relative pronoun (dependent word) that normally introduces such a clause or something from the predicate in the second part of a comparison. The missing parts of the elliptical clause can be guessed from the context and most readers are not aware that anything is missing. In fact, elliptical clauses are regarded as both useful and correct, even in formal prose, because they are often elegant, efficient means of expression. (The omitted words are noted in brackets below).
Coach Espinoza knew [that] this team would be the best [that] she had coached in recent years.
Though [they were] sometimes nervous on the court, her recruits proved to be hard workers.
Sometimes the veterans knew the recruits could play better than they [could play].
GERUNDS AND INFINITIVES:
Both gerunds and infinitives can be nouns
which means they can do just about anything that a noun can do. Although they name things, like other nouns, they normally name activities rather than people or objects. Here are five noun-uses of gerunds and infinitives (and one additional non-noun use, the adjective complement, that we throw in here, free of charge).
Gerunds and infintives can both function as the subject of a sentence:
Playing basketball takes up too much of her time.
To play basketball for UConn is her favorite fantasy.
It is not impossible for an infinitive to appear at the beginning of a sentence as the subject (as in Ib), but it is more common for an infinitive to appear as a Subject Complement:
Her favorite fantasy is to play basketball for UConn.
The gerund can also play this role:
Her favorite fantasy is playing basketball for UConn.
Both of these verbal forms can further identify a noun when they play the role of Noun Complement and Appositive:
Her desire to play basketball for UConn became an obsession.
I could never understand her desire to play basketball for UConn.
Her one burning desire in life, playing basketball for UConn, seemed a goal within reach.
The infinitive is often a complement used to help define an abstract noun. Here is a very partial list of abstract nouns, enough to suggest their nature. Try following these adjectives with an infinitive phrase (their desire to play in the championship game, a motivation to pass all their courses, her permission to stay up late, a gentle reminder to do your work) to see how the phrase modifies and focuses the noun.
adviceappealcommanddecisiondesirefactinstructionmotivation
opportunityorderpermissionplanpossibilitypreparationproposalrecommendation
refusalreminderrequestrequirementsuggestiontendencywish




Infinitive phrases often follow certain adjectives. When this happens, the infinitive is said to play the role of Adjective Complement. (This is not a noun function, but we will include it here nonetheless.)
She was hesitant to tell the coach of her plan.
She was reluctant to tell her parents, also.
But she would not have been content to play high school ball forever.
Here is a list of adjectives that you will often find in such constructions.
aheadamazedanxiousaptashamedboundcarefulcertaincontentdelighted
determineddisappointedeagereligiblefortunategladhappyhesitantliablelikely
luckypleasedproudreadyreluctantsadshockedsorrysurprisedupset
Although we do not find many infinitives in this next category, it is not uncommon to find gerunds taking on the role of Object of a Preposition:
She wrote a newspaper article about dealing with college recruiters.
She thanked her coach for helping her to deal with the pressure.
Two prepositions, except and but, will sometimes take an infinitive.
The committee had no choice except to elect Frogbellow chairperson.
What is left for us but to pack up our belongings and leave?
And, finally, both gerunds and infinitives can act as a Direct Object:
Here, however, all kinds of decisions have to be made, and some of these decisions will seem quite arbitrary. The next section is about making the choice between gerund and infinitive forms as direct object.
Verbs that take other verb forms as objects are called catenatives (from a word that means to link, as in a chain). Catenatives can be found at the head of a series of linked constructions, as in "We agreed to try to decide to stop eating between meals." Catenatives are also characterized by their tendency to describe mental processes and resolutions. (Kolln)
Although it is seldom a serious problem for native English speakers, deciding whether to use a gerund or an infinitive after a verb can be perplexing among students for whom English is a second language. Why do we decide to run, but we would never decide running? On the other hand, we might avoid running, but we would not avoid to run. And finally, we might like running and would also like to run. It is clear that some verbs take gerunds, some verbs take infinitives, and some verbs take either. The following tables of verbs should help you understand the various options that regulate our choice of infinitive or gerund.
The verbs in the table below will be followed by an infinitive. We decided to leave. He manages, somehow, to win. It is threatening to rain. Notice that many, but not all, of these verbs suggest a potential event.
Some of the verbs in the following table may be followed by a gerund if they are describing an "actual, vivid or fulfilled action" (Frodesen). We love running. They began farming the land. These are described, also, below.
Emotion
caredesirehate
hatelikeloathe
loveregretyearn
Choice or Intent
agreechoosedecidedecideexpect
hopeintendneedplanprefer
prepareproposerefusewantwish
Initiation, Completion, Incompletion
beginceasecommencefail
gethesitatemanageneglect
starttryundertake
Mental Process
forgetknow how
learn
remember
Request and Promise
demandoffer
promiseswear
threatenvow
Intransitives
appearhappen
seem
tend
Miscellaneous
affordarrange
claimcontinue
pretendwait



The verbs in the next table will often be followed by an infinitive, but they will also be accompanied by a second object. We asked the intruders to leave quietly. They taught the children to swim. The teacher convinced his students to try harder.
The verbs in blue, with an asterisk, can also follow the same pattern as the verbs in the table above (i.e., the second object is optional). We all wanted to go. They promised to be home early.
Communication
adviseask*beg*challengecommandconvince
forbidinviteorderpermitpersuadepromise*
remindrequiretellwarnurge
Instruction
encouragehelp
instructteach
train
Causing
allowcausechoose
forcegethire
need*would like*
Miscellaneous
dare*expect*
trustprepare*
want*
Gerunds accompany a form of the verb to go in many idiomatic expressions: Let's go shopping. We went jogging yesterday. She goes bowling every Friday night.
The following verbs will be followed by a gerund. Did I mention reading that novel last summer? I recommend leaving while we can. I have quit smoking These verbs tend to describe actual events.
Initiation, Completion and Incompletion
anticipateavoidbeginceasecomplete
delayfinishget throughgive uppostpone
quitriskstartstoptry
Communication
admitadvisedenydiscuss
encouragementionrecommend
reportsuggesturge
Continuing Action
continuecan't help
practiceinvolve
keepkeep on
Emotion
appreciatedislikeenjoyhatelike
loveminddon't mindmissprefer
regretcan't standresentresisttolerate
Mental Process
anticipateconsiderforget
imaginerecallremember
seecan't seeunderstand
The verbs in the following table can be followed by either an infinitive or a gerund, and there will be virtually no difference in the meaning of the two sentences. I like to play basketball in the park. I like playing basketball in the park.
attemptbegincontinuehate
likeloveneglectprefer
regretcan't standstandstart
The verbs in this next, very small table can be followed by either an infinitive or a gerund, but there will be a difference in meaning. I stopped smoking means something quite different, for instance, from I stopped to smoke. The infinitive form will usually describe a potential action.
forget
remember
stop
Finally, the verbs below will be followed by either a gerund or a simple verb and a second subject will be required. I saw the team losing its composure. I overheard my landlord discussing a rent increase. (I heard Bill sing/singing.) These verbs involve the senses.
Verbs Involving Senses
feelhearlisten to
look atnoticeobserve
overhearseewatch
Verbs of perception — hear, see, watch — and a handful of other verbs — help, let, and make — will take what is called the bare infinitive, an infinitive without the particle "to." This is true of these verbs only in the active voice.
We watched him clear the table.
They heard the thief crash through the door.
She made me do it.
We helped her finish the homework.
Using Possessives with Gerunds
Do we say "I can't stand him singing in the shower," or do we say "I can't stand his singing in the shower"? Well, you have to decide what you find objectionable: is it him, the fact that he is singing in the shower, or is it the singing that is being done by him that you can't stand? Chances are, it's the latter, it's the singing that belongs to him that bugs you. So we would say, "I can't stand his singing in the shower."
On the other hand, do we say "I noticed your standing in the alley last night"? Probably not, because it's not the action that we noticed; it's the person. So we'd say and write, instead, "I noticed you standing in the alley last night." Usually, however, when a noun or pronoun precedes a gerund, that noun or pronoun takes a possessive form. This is especially true of formal, academic writing.
There are exceptions to this. (What would the study of language be without exceptions?)
When the noun preceding the gerund is modified by other words, use the common form of that noun, not the possessive.
Federico was pleased by Carlos's making the Dean's List for the first time.but
Federico was pleased by Carlos, his oldest son, making the Dean's List for the first time.
When the noun preceding the gerund is plural, collective, or abstract, use the common form of that noun, not the possessive.
Professor Villa was amazed by her students working as hard as they did.
The class working collaboratively was somebody else's idea.
It was a case of old age getting the better of them.
There are certain situations in which the possessive and the gerund create an awkward combination. This seems to be particularly true when indefinite pronouns are involved.
I was shocked by somebody's making that remark.This would be greatly improved by saying, instead . . .
I was shocked that somebody would make that remark.
This is also true when the "owner" of the gerund comes wrapped in a noun phrase:
I was thankful for the guy next door shoveling snow from my driveway.
Common Uncountable English Nouns
Food and Drink: bacon, beef, beer, bread, broccoli, butter, cabbage, candy, cauliflower, celery, cereal, cheese, chicken, chocolate, coffee, corn, cream, fish, flour, fruit, ice cream, lettuce, meat, milk, oil, pasta, rice, salt, spinach, sugar, tea, water, wine, and yogurt
Nonfood Substances: air ,cement, coal, dirt, gasoline, gold, ice, leather, paper, petroleum, plastic, rain, rubber, silver, snow, soap, steel, wood and wool. Abstract nouns: advice, anger, beauty, confidence, courage, employment, fun, happiness, health, honesty, information, intelligence, knowledge, love, poverty, satisfaction, truth, and wealth